What do we know about resilience?

Defining resilience

Stress, limitations, difficult situations, losses, and significant life changes such as aging and even death are integral parts of being human. Although at first glance these problems seem to be the sworn enemies of positive psychology, given their inevitability, managing them well is essential for leading a fulfilling life.

The concept of resilience emerged approximately 40 years ago when researchers observed that some individuals adapted well to life despite severe circumstances (such as the loss of parents at a young age). This represented a positive departure from typical pathological models that assumed early traumatic experiences would inevitably have negative life consequences. However, little scientific research focused on this phenomenon, and the field of study remained quite limited. It is only in the last 20 years that the study of resilience has expanded significantly, and a recent study revealed that the use of the term “resilience” in academic literature has increased eightfold in the past two decades.

Resilience can be described as a relative resistance to stress as well as to current and future adverse events or conditions (abuse, divorce, poverty, etc.). In other words, resilience is the ability to bounce back and feel in control of our emotions and reactions in difficult circumstances. People who possess this ability are more active and responsive socially and adapt successfully to the experience of risk factors.

Resilience is, in fact, a multifaceted construct. It is both a capacity and an active process encompassing a person's flexibility in responding to the demands of changing situations, and the ability to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. We can distinguish three facets of resilience: recovery, resistance, and reconfiguration.

Recovery is that facet of resilience which refers to the return to normal, to the level of functioning (health and psychosocial well-being) before the stress.
Resistance occurs when a person shows very little or no signs of disturbance (low distress, normal functioning) following a distressing event.
Reconfiguration occurs when a person returns to homeostasis in a different form, with key aspects about that person changing as a result of their experience.

Although resilience is a complex phenomenon, many of its skills can be acquired through tools such as coping and adaptation strategies, post-traumatic growth, cognitive behavioral therapy, positive psychology, mindfulness, and more. Let's therefore examine in detail the areas of research and practice that inform our current understanding of resilience.

1) Coping

The literature on coping discusses three main types of strategies that people tend to use: problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and avoidance (Carr, 2004). Problem-focused coping occurs when people identify a problem and take steps to resolve it. These strategies aim to directly change the source of stress by fixing the problem. Emotion-focused coping is not really focused on the problem itself, but rather on the emotions it evokes in us. So, if we turn to someone else for help, it will usually be for emotional support (e.g., talking, crying, showing empathy) rather than instrumental support (e.g., specific advice on what to do in the situation). It is often helpful to address the emotions first before focusing on the actual problem. Once emotions have been processed, we can think more clearly and assess the situation more accurately, seeing the various possibilities available. These strategies are also better suited to situations of uncontrollable stress, when it is impossible to "solve" the problem. Avoidance occurs when people try to deny the existence of the problem and block it out in their minds (possibly with the help of alcohol, drugs, or even studying/work).

Concrete strategies within these three broad groups can be both functional and dysfunctional. For example, accepting responsibility for solving a problem or developing a realistic action plan are functional, problem-focused strategies, while procrastination is a dysfunctional one. Similarly, catharsis, emotional release, or seeking support from friends are constructive, emotion-focused ways of coping, while engaging in destructive relationships, aggression, or desire-based thinking are far less so. Avoidance-focused strategies can also be helpful in the short term. However, being constantly distracted and mentally disengaging from the experience is dysfunctional, partly because unresolved problems do not resolve themselves but tend to worsen over time.

2) Post-traumatic growth (PTG)

We face stressful situations daily, some more serious than others. However, we sometimes encounter traumatic events (for example, the death of a parent or the diagnosis/onset of a disability) that can change the course of our lives forever. Certain beliefs (for example, that the world is generally a fair place) may no longer seem true, and many goals may no longer seem important. Yet, even when this happens, some individuals emerge from the experience having gained something. This phenomenon is called post-traumatic growth. It is associated with improved not only psychological but also physical health (Baumeister & Vohs, 2002).

Through post-traumatic growth, many people feel much stronger after adversity and have greater confidence in themselves and their abilities. Others report having better and stronger relationships, or a greater sense of compassion for others in similar situations. Sometimes, people learn to appreciate again what they have, even the small things in life that we so often take for granted. Some also discover meaning or spirituality as a result of the event, leading to the development of a more coherent and fulfilling worldview and philosophy of life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004).

A renowned psychologist, Viktor Frankl (1963), himself a Holocaust survivor, observed that one's attitude toward adversity is crucial: “You can take everything from a man, but… the last of human freedoms—to decide how to behave in a given set of circumstances, to choose one's own way.” For example, if a traumatic situation is perceived as a challenge, the person is more likely to experience a traumatic event.

Several factors that contribute to CPT are also useful skills that can help build resilience. These include:

– To give meaning to the situation
– To find meaning/sense
– Attitude towards adversity
– Interpersonal support.

3) Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a term used to describe interventions that aim to reduce psychological stress and maladaptive behaviors by modifying cognitive processes or thinking. Indeed, many psychological problems have been found to be associated with distorted or deficient thinking (for example, people with anxiety disorders have been found to mistakenly perceive ambiguous events as threatening). A number of studies have concluded that CBT is an effective way to help us treat psychological or behavioral problems (for example, Dray et al., 2017).

The basic principle of CBT is that, since behavior and feelings are influenced by cognitive processes, changing our way of thinking can lead to changes in behavior and feelings. CBT focuses on the "here and now" rather than the past, and is based on a guided process of self-discovery, experimentation, and skill development.

The essential elements of cognitive-behavioral interventions that can be useful in developing resilience are listed below:

– Monitoring of thought (e.g., identification of automatic negative thoughts)
– Identifying and challenging cognitive distortions and thinking pitfalls (drawing hasty conclusions; narrow vision; amplifying the negative and minimizing the positive; personalizing or externalizing blame; overgeneralizing small failures, etc.)
– Evaluation and reframing of thinking (development of alternative cognitive processes)
– A deliberate optimism in developing new and positive future prospects
– Emotional labeling (for example, naming the emotions experienced)
– Affective monitoring (e.g., scales to assess intensity)
– Emotional management (for example, relaxation techniques)
– Role-playing, modeling and repetition
– Home practice and exercises

4) Psychology of positive experiences

Positive psychology (PP) is the study of the positive aspects of human life, such as happiness, well-being, and fulfillment. Often contrasted with the medical model, this approach explicitly emphasizes the potential of individuals and the search for what gives meaning to our lives (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive psychology asks slightly different questions, such as “What works?” rather than “What doesn’t,” “What’s good about this person?” rather than “What’s wrong with them,” “Why do some people succeed when faced with adverse circumstances?” rather than “Why do some people fail?” In short, positive psychology can be summarized as building on strengths rather than dwelling on what’s wrong. The following positive psychological elements and interventions have been identified as being useful in developing resilience (Tabibnia & Radecki, 2018).

– Identify your past experiences of success and competence
– Recognize and use authentic and personal strengths
– Active engagement with one's community
– Harnessing the “power” of positive emotions
– Develop a flexible mindset
– Participation in a physical activity

5) Mindfulness

Research and evidence on mindfulness have grown exponentially in recent years, with the combined number of publications in the last three years exceeding the total number of publications from 1980 to 2013. This explosion in research reflects the growing interest of scientists and practitioners in mindfulness. Jon Kabat-Zinn, the creator of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, describes mindfulness as “paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present moment, and without judgment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2013, p. xxxv) with the ability to remain fully present in whatever is happening as it happens.Extensive neuroscientific studies have shown that mindfulness alters brain function—it improves cognitive flexibility, creativity and innovation, well-being, emotional regulation, and empathy. Mindfulness is also presented as an effective strategy for emotional regulation, improving stress regulation and psychological and physical well-being, enhancing cognitive flexibility, pain management, and positive outcomes. The combination of CBT approaches and mindfulness has been shown to contribute to the overall effectiveness of resilience interventions (Joyce et al., 2018).

Examples of mindfulness exercises include the Body Scan (focusing the mind on specific body parts in sequence, with complete and indivisible awareness, creating more focused attention), and mindful listening (paying full and focused attention to all the sounds surrounding a person). While some of these techniques, such as the Body Scan, can be lengthy, others can be easily performed in about 5 minutes. Including these techniques in multi-component resilience interventions helps regulate emotions and stress.

In conclusion

Science tells us that it is possible to develop resilience, with evidence indicating that multiple resources can be put in place through training and interventions (Dray, et al., 2017). Over the past twelve years, we have created the SPARK Resilience Program, which has been delivered in educational and professional settings through digital and face-to-face means, and has demonstrated a positive impact on resilience, self-esteem, and depression outcomes (Boniwell & Ryan, 2009; Pluess & Boniwell, 2015; Pluess, Boniwell, Hefferon, & Tunariu, 2017). The program has evolved based on the latest research findings and now includes most of the resilience-building strategies identified in the literature. Most recently, the program was tested during the COVID-19 lockdown and improved resilience and meaning in life, while also achieving a negative effect and a reduction in stress.

Learn more:

See our SPARK Resilience at Work training program
See our SPARK Resilience in Education training program
Read our SPARK study on Resilience during Covid-19

Check out our resilience toolkit which includes videos and interviews with resilience specialists from around the world.

Scientific references:

Baumeister, R.F. & Vohs, K.D. (2002). The pursuit of meaningfulness in life. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp.608–618). New York: Oxford University Press.

Boniwell, I. & Ryan, L. (2009). SPARK Resilience: A teacher’s guide. London, UK: University of East London.

Carr, A. (2004). Positive Psychology. Hove: Brunner-Routledge.

Dray, J., Bowman, J., Campbell, E., Freund, M., Wolfenden, L., Hodder, R. K., … & Small, T. (2017). Systematic review of universal resilience-focused interventions targeting child and adolescent mental health in the school setting. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(10), 813-824.

Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s Search for Meaning, Washington Square Press, Simon and Schuster, New York

Joyce, S., Shand, F., Tighe, J., Laurent, S. J., Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, S. B. (2018). Road to resilience: a systematic review and meta-analysis of resilience training programmes and interventions. BMJ Open, 8(6), e017858.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full catastrophe living, revised edition: how to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation. Hachette UK.

Pluess, M., & Boniwell, I. (2015). Sensory-processing sensitivity predicts treatment response to a school-based depression prevention program: Evidence of vantage sensitivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 40-45.

Pluess, M., Boniwell, I., Hefferon, K., & Tunariu, A. (2017). Preliminary evaluation of a school-based resilience-promoting intervention in a high-risk population: Application of an exploratory two-cohort treatment/control design. PloS one, 12(5), e0177191.

Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14.

Tabibnia, G., & Radecki, D. (2018). Resilience training that can change the brain. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 70(1), 59-88.

Tedeschi, R.G. & Calhoun, L.G. (2004). A clinical approach to posttraumatic growth. In P. A. Linley and S. Joseph (Eds.) Positive Psychology in Practice (pp.405–419). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.